May 2022 - ARC IWE CONSULTING

New Engineering X case studies spotlight good and bad safety practice for complex systems

New approaches needed to manage and operate safely within complex systems in an increasingly unpredictable world
Traditional specialist engineering education and professional development must adapt to include learning from different sectors and social sciences

The Engineering X Safer Complex Systems (SCS) mission has published 18 new case studies examining the systemic successes and failures of different events around the world and how approaches to the design, construction, operation, management or governance of complex systems have resulted in safe or unsafe outcomes.

From fires and train crashes to flood management and nursing care, the case studies provide a new resource to support the education and professional development necessary to achieve safer complex systems.

The case studies cover a wide variety of events, involving different complex systems, geographies and stakeholders, such as the 2011 Brisbane floods, the 2019 economic and health crises in Chile, and major fires in Dhaka and the Cape. Also covered are failures of humanitarian supply chains in famine areas, the partial collapse of new school buildings in Edinburgh, the Netherlands Delta flood protection programme, and the structural integrity of offshore wind turbines. Several well-known accidents from the past are revisited, including the capsizing of the Herald of Free Enterprise and Hatfield rail crash.

Many of the lessons learned are specific to a certain location or particular combination of factors but there are some common themes that are transferable and relevant to all sectors:

Lack of systemic thinking and action over the lifetime of the systems
Little or no attention to structure of governance early in activity
Treating complex uncertain issues and risks with tools developed for complicated ones
Lack of alignment of purpose between actors
Ill-defined boundaries of responsibility, authority, accountability and legal structures
Unverified assumptions
Poor information sharing in the face of a blame or project-driven culture
Inconsistent and poor data management to support statistical analysis and modelling
Safety seen as an engineering or technology issue rather than a cultural or social issue

Dame Judith Hackitt DBE FREng, Chair of the Engineering X Safer Complex Systems Board, said: “The most severe threats to our civilisation are complex sociotechnical issues with many interdependencies and no right or wrong solutions. What is striking is that although these case studies come from a wide range of geographies, disciplines and sectors there are lessons to be learned that are more widely applicable.

“Engineers’ problem-solving and systems thinking skills are important to successfully responding to the world’s challenges, but in order to take on these responsibilities the profession must be fit for purpose.

“Those of us already in the workforce need to reach out beyond the silos into which our training has often funnelled us. We must learn lessons from and work more widely with others across international boundaries and with all parts of society in order to develop an inclusive, safe and sustainable future. The training and education of our future engineers must be reconfigured to develop and maintain their interest in addressing the many challenges and prepare them for working in a world of ever-increasing complexity.

“We encourage everyone to read and reflect on all these case studies—including those from outside their own sector—share them with their networks and, together, consider how the lessons learned might be applicable in their own professional situations.”

The Safer Complex Systems programme intends to further develop, and build from, the case study content to influence university curricula, continuing professional development (CPD) and chartership (CEng).

The case studies are:

Cyber–physical system shortfalls in the 2011 Brisbane flood (Australia)Project lead: Dr Giuliano Punzo, University of Sheffield, UK
Australian climate extremes and building transport network resilience (Australia)Project lead: Dr Kirsten MacAskill, University of Cambridge, UK
Planned Adaptive Regulation: Learnings from the Delta Programme (The Netherlands)Project lead: Dr Richard Judge, Bartlett Judge Associates, UK
A comparative study of fire risk emergence in informal settlements in Dhaka and Cape Town (South Africa, Bangladesh)Project lead: Danielle Antonellis, Kindling, USA
Community evacuation from wildfire events (USA, Canada)Project lead: Professor Steve Gwynne, Movement Strategies, UK
Towards a simple and safer nuclear sector: The 2005 THORP internal leak (UK)Project lead: Professor Francis Livens, University of Manchester, UK
Bexley train crash—a system failure (UK)Dr Chris Elliott MBE FREng, Pitchill Consulting, Switzerland
Revisiting the causes of the Hatfield Rail Crash (UK)Project lead: Professor Roger Kemp MBE FREng, Lancaster University, UK
A systems approach to reducing train accident risk (UK)Project lead: Brian Tomlinson, Network Rail, UK
Understanding and utilising data for a seasonally agnostic railway (UK)Project lead: Dr Brian Haddock, Network Rail, UK
Ro Ro passenger ferry safety: the capsizing of the Herald of Free Enterprise (UK and Belgium)
Project lead: Professor Chengi Kuo, University of Strathclyde, UK
Towards intelligent dynamics of an active transport system for biking (Colombia)Project lead: Professor Andrés Medaglia Gonzalez, Universidad de Los Andes, Colombia
Complex systemic failures in the Edinburgh Schools case (UK)Project lead: Dr Jonathan Gosling, Cardiff University, UK
Systemic failures in nursing home care (Australia)Project lead: Professor Dr Joachim Sturmberg, University of Newcastle, Australia
Humanitarian supply chains: systems failures, recovery and emerging alternatives (International)Project lead: Claire Travers, Field Ready, Sweden
Social innovators as a human sensing network solving humanitarian challenges of the XXI century (Chile)Project lead: Matías René Rojas De Luca, Socialab, Chile
Improving resilience to major safety events by analysing case studies (USA, Japan, Australia, Hungary and UK)
Project lead: Professor Richard Taylor MBE, University of Bristol, UK
Beyond the boundaries: characterising situational uncertainty in complex systems (International)Project lead: Dr Richard Judge, Bartlett Judge Associates, UK

Professor Brian Collins CB FREng, Chair of the SCS Case Study steering committee, led an online event on 25 May 2022 showcasing the work of the awardees and including a panel discussion. Following this event, all case studies were published in full on the Engineering X website.

Dame Judith Hackitt will talk about safer complex systems and other positive lessons we can learn about how to make the world better when she delivers a public lecture at the Engineering Professors Council annual congress on 7 June 2022.

Engineers and non-engineers in academia, industry and government with an interest and expertise in safety and complex systems are invited to join the mission’s growing global community to better understand and operate complex systems in safe way. Please contact Hazel Ingham, Senior Manager, Engineering X.

Notes for Editors

Engineering X is an international collaboration founded by the Royal Academy of Engineering and Lloyd’s Register Foundation that brings together some of the world’s leading problem-solvers to address the great challenges of our age. Our global network of expert engineers in academia and industry are working in partnership with leaders in business, government and civil society to share knowledge and best practice, explore new approaches and technologies, and educate and train the next generation of engineers to improve safety and deliver impact.
The Engineering X, Safer Complex Systems mission was launched in June 2019 to enhance the safety of complex infrastructure systems globally. Safer Complex Systems is governed through a board chaired by Dame Judith Hackitt DBE FREng, current Chair of Enginuity, Board member of High Value Manufacturing Catapult and former Chair of the Health and Safety Executive.
The Royal Academy of Engineering is harnessing the power of engineering to build a sustainable society and an inclusive economy that works for everyone. In collaboration with our Fellows and partners, we’re growing talent and developing skills for the future, driving innovation and building global partnerships, and influencing policy and engaging the public. Together we’re working to tackle the greatest challenges of our age.
Lloyd’s Register Foundation is an independent global charity that helps to protect life and property at sea, on land, and in the air. The Foundation has partnered with the Royal Academy of Engineering to tackle the most pressing engineering safety and sustainability problems, and to develop these into practical and accessible outputs for the engineering profession and affected communities.

Media enquiries to: Pippa Cox at the Royal Academy of Engineering Tel. +44 207 766 0745; email: Pippa.Cox@raeng.org.uk

By Arc Consulting|2022-05-25T08:36:38+00:00May 25th, 2022|Engineering News|Comments Off

Connecting STEM Teachers network celebrates the 90th anniversary of Amelia Earhart landing in Derry

Students from the Academy’s Connecting STEM Teachers schools network in Northern Ireland have celebrated the 90th anniversary of Amelia Earhart landing unexpectedly near Londonderry when she became the first woman to fly the Atlantic solo in May 1932.

The Amelia Earhart STEM Challenge, hosted by Ulster University on 20 May 2022, brought together students from across the region to compete in design challenges ranging from Longest Flying Distance to Best Plane Aesthetics. The STEM Challenge allowed them to demonstrate their talents and celebrate the magnificent achievements of Amelia Earhart and her unique aviation link with Derry in a way that was both fun and educational.

The winners of The Amelia Earhart Legacy Association Perpetual Trophy were Thornhill College, who also won a helicopter ride with their teacher over Derry and along the flight path taken by Amelia Earhart before she landed on Gallagher’s farm in Ballyarnett, courtesy of City of Derry Airport and Cutting Edge Helicopters.

The winning team from Thornhill College Left to right: Ella-Jane McChrystal, Niamh Donnelly, Emma Doherty, Aimee Kerr and Mia Bo Cheung

Among the guests were the Mayor Graham Warke and representatives of Atchinson Amelia Earhart Foundation visiting from America. Prizes were presented by Maressa McWilliams, Senior Marketing Executive, City of Derry Airport, and Karen Seaberg, Chair of the Board of Directors, Atchinson Amelia Earhart Foundation.

The Amelia Earhart STEM Challenge was initiated by Clare Doherty, the Academy’s Connecting STEM Teachers coordinator in Northern Ireland. She is the great-granddaughter of Robert Gallagher, the farmer who was among the first to greet the celebrated US women pilot at Ballyarnett when she landed in one of his fields. Clare recounted the story to the BBC.

End

By Arc Consulting|2022-05-25T06:33:33+00:00May 25th, 2022|Engineering News|Comments Off

Academy supports valuable new resources for systems approaches to policy development in government

The Government Office for Science (GO-Science) has today launched a suite of documents to help civil servants use systems thinking to create more effective and enduring policies to address increasingly complex problems.

The Royal Academy of Engineering contributed to the development of the documents in collaboration with the civil service’s Systems Thinking Interest Group and Policy Profession Unit. The suite includes an introduction to systems thinking, case studies, a toolkit, and the systems thinking ‘journey’ that aligns systems thinking to existing civil service approaches and maps systems thinking principles to stages of policy design.

The Academy has for many years championed the use of systems approaches by government as a means of structuring integrated policy responses to complex challenges. Systems thinking helps to make sense of complexity, change our understanding of issues, find ways of achieving better outcomes, and see new opportunities to solve multiple problems at the same time.

Professor Sir Jim McDonald, President of the Royal Academy of Engineering, says of this latest step by government: “The development of these resources signals an important recognition of the need for and importance of systems thinking and systems approaches within policy making. I welcome these resources as an important step toward equipping civil and public servants with the questions and approaches they need to address the most complex policy challenges facing governments today. The Royal Academy of Engineering stands ready to support government further on its journey in understanding and embedding these crucial perspectives and methods in their vital work.”

The Academy also promotes the use of systems approaches through its Policy Fellowships—an intensive professional development programme that supports better evidence-based policymaking through engineering perspectives and systems approaches. The programme is open for applications until 28 June.

Policy Fellows are selected from exceptional civil and public servants with a variety of insights, expertise and backgrounds from across the policy community who are interested in progressing a policy challenge through exposure to engineering expertise. The programme injects the fresh and practical perspectives of the ‘engineering habits of the mind’ into policy work and explores new ways of working between policymakers and engineers. The programme has supported 47 Policy Fellows since it started in 2019.

In a further development, the Policy Fellows and the Policy Profession Unit (PPU) have created a series of interactive workshops for civil and public servants—the Systems Thinking Knowledge Series—as an additional means to show how policy makers can use systems thinking approaches to create more effective and enduring policies. Each workshop focuses on a specific policy challenge and how the Policy Fellows used aspects of systems thinking to address that challenge.

The series is sponsored by Tamara Finkelstein, Permanent Secretary at Defra and Head of the Policy Profession, and Sir Patrick Vallance, Chief Scientific Adviser and Head of the Government Science & Engineering Profession.

Notes for Editors

The Royal Academy of Engineering is harnessing the power of engineering to build a sustainable society and an inclusive economy that works for everyone. In collaboration with our Fellows and partners, we’re growing talent and developing skills for the future, driving innovation and building global partnerships, and influencing policy and engaging the public. Together, we’re working to tackle the greatest challenges of our age.

The Government Office for Science advise the Prime Minister and members of the Cabinet, to ensure that government policies and decisions are informed by the best scientific evidence and strategic long-term thinking. We aim to deliver science advice mechanisms that are efficient, effective, speak truth to power and are embedded irreversibly in government systems, and have visible impact through both pro-active and demand-led science advice that is relevant, excellent, and delivered fit for purpose.

Media enquiries to: Pippa Cox at the Royal Academy of Engineering Tel. +44 207 766 0745; email: Pippa.Cox@raeng.org.uk

By Arc Consulting|2022-05-22T17:28:51+00:00May 22nd, 2022|Engineering News|Comments Off

Open burning of waste in Africa: Challenges and opportunities

Open waste burning is one of the major contributors of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and poses major health hazards owing to the cocktail of air pollutants it discharges, according to a report published this week. The report, Open burning of waste in Africa: Challenges and opportunities, has been compiled by the Engineering X Safer End of Engineered Life mission in partnership with the UN High-Level Climate Champions (UNHLC) and launched at the 9^th Africities summit in Kisumu, Kenya.

Key points include:

Open burning of waste produces 11% of global black carbon emissions, with 26% of global waste burned at a residential level and 15% spontaneously burned at dump sites.
Emissions from solid waste driven by open dumps and landfills account for about 5-12% of total global GHG emissions while methane generated from decomposing organic waste accounts for around 20% of global methane.
Open burning of waste accounts for 29% of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) pollution in the air and this together with other air pollutants cause nearly 1.2 million premature deaths per year in Africa.

According to the report, authored by UN High-Level Champions Waste Leads Professor Desta Mebratu and Dr Andriannah Mbandi, Sub-Saharan Africa generated around 9% of global waste as of 2016, or 180 million tonnes. About two-thirds of that is dropped in landfills and open dump sites, where it risks polluting both the local environment and global climate.

The report notes that children living near these dump sites are ingesting and inhaling toxic substances. The particulate matter emitted in the air causes lung and heart disease, cancer, infertility, low birthweight, premature birth, cognitive development problems, and premature death. Dump sites emit around 20% of the world’s methane and 11% of black carbon – two potent short-lived greenhouse gases that must be slashed in order to limit the impacts of climate change.

The study also highlights that around 70-80% of the municipal solid waste generated in African cities is recyclable – such as biodegradable waste, plastics and paper – and could be worth US$8 billion per year if kept in a circular economy. It recommends taking an engineering approach to addressing the structural deficiencies in waste management and promoting a circular economy that prioritises reuse, recycling and recovery will strengthen local manufacturing, create jobs, reduce unemployment, support inclusive and sustainable local and regional economies, and reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.

The report makes it clear that there are major challenges, but also opportunities for the region, including:

Reducing and phasing out open waste burning in African urban centres would have significant health and environmental benefits besides reducing emission of GHGs.
African countries have unique opportunities to secure multiple economic, social and environmental benefits through local separation and recycling of waste as secondary resources.
This would require moving away from piecemeal interventions to systemic transformation with a focus on addressing the systemic deficiencies of waste management systems in African urban centres.

The report also calls for an expansion of the UN High-Level Climate Champions’ partnership with Engineering X, an international collaboration founded by the Royal Academy of Engineering and Lloyd’s Register Foundation, by welcoming other international and regional partners into the work – particularly in the run-up to November’s COP27 summit in Sharm El-Sheikh. The Engineering X Safer End of Engineered Life mission aims to apply engineering expertise to improving existing waste management practices and supporting design-for-waste principles and safer, more sustainable waste policies in the longer term.

In a joint foreword to the report, the UN Climate Change High-Level Champions for COP26 and COP27, Nigel Topping and Dr Mahmoud Mohieldin, say:

“The African Union has set an ambitious target for African cities to recycle at least half of their waste by 2023. Many are still far from achieving this, but according to the UN Environment Programme the goal can be met and even surpassed with a shift of organic waste to composting and bioenergy recovery, along with the refurbishment, repair, reuse and recycling of plastics, paper, metal, glass, tyres and electronic waste.

“To do this, the transformation needs to be systemic. It needs to include the informal waste recyclers who are already getting waste back into the African economy, as well as national governments, cities and development partners.”

Notes for Editors

Engineering X is an international collaboration, founded by the Royal Academy of Engineering and Lloyd’s Register Foundation, that brings together some of the world’s leading problem-solvers to address the great challenges of our age. Our global network of expert engineers, academics and business leaders is working to share best practice, explore new technologies, educate and train the next generation of engineers, build capacity, improve safety and deliver impact.

Engineering X Safer End of Engineered Life is a five-year programme with the mission to reduce the number of incidents, accidents and casualties that happen as a result of safety issues by improving existing waste management practices and supporting design-for-waste principles and safer, more sustainable waste policies in the longer term. Its objectives are:

to understand and apply practical interventions to improve safety at end of engineered life
to build an international community of knowledge and good practice across national and sectorial boundaries for the improvement of safety in end of engineered life
to raise awareness and public understanding of these issues

The UN Climate Change High-Level Champions, Nigel Topping for the UK’s COP26 and Dr Mahmoud Mohieldin for Egypt’s COP27, are responsible for mobilising stronger, faster and more credible climate action from businesses, investors, cities and regions worldwide. The Champions’ team launched three UN-backed campaigns in the run-up to COP26 to bring these non-state actors together: the Race to Zero, for robust and science-based commitments to net zero emissions before 2050; the Race to Resilience, for commitments to build resilience by 2030; and the Glasgow Financial Alliance for Net Zero, uniting financial institutions.

Lloyd’s Register Foundation is an independent global charity with a unique structure and an important mission: engineering a safer world. We reduce risk and enhance the safety of the critical infrastructure that modern society relies upon in areas such as energy, transport, and food.
Our vision is to be known worldwide as a leading supporter of engineering-related research, training and education that makes a real difference in improving the safety of the critical infrastructure on which modern society relies. In support of this, we promote scientific excellence and act as a catalyst working with others to achieve maximum impact. We meet our aims by awarding grants, by direct activity, and through the societal benefit activities of our trading group, which shares our mission. Through our grant making we aim to connect science, safety and society by supporting research of the highest quality and promoting skills and education.

They have also established a team of nearly 100 global experts who work on a series of cross-cutting special programmes and engage extensively with global leaders from across governments, regions, cities, businesses, and communities. The team, which is hosted by the Rockefeller Philanthropy Advisors, is made up of a mix of pro-bono secondments, sponsored roles, volunteers, and contractors.

The Royal Academy of Engineering is harnessing the power of engineering to build a sustainable society and an inclusive economy that works for everyone.

In collaboration with our Fellows and partners, we’re growing talent and developing skills for the future, driving innovation and building global partnerships, and influencing policy and engaging the public.

Together we’re working to tackle the greatest challenges of our age.

For more information please contact:

Jane Sutton at the Royal Academy of Engineering

T: +44 207 766 0636

E: Jane Sutton

By Arc Consulting|2022-05-18T23:01:00+00:00May 18th, 2022|Engineering News|Comments Off

Review of Recent Progress in Green Ammonia Synthesis

Johnson Matthey Technol. Rev., 2022, 66, (3), 230

1. Introduction

Ammonia is a vital commodity chemical incorporated into the fertilisers that are needed to feed the growing global population. The conventional industrial process to produce ammonia involves the conversion of hydrocarbons into hydrogen through purification, steam reforming, water-gas shift and separation. Nitrogen is incorporated from the air during secondary steam reforming. Ammonia is made in the Haber-Bosch process; a synthesis loop that operates at high pressure (150–350 bar) to favour the gaseous reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen and high temperature (400–450°C) to promote the reaction kinetics (1). The reaction is catalysed by metallic iron. The process is summarised in Figure 1.

Fig. 1.

Conventional syngas route for ammonia production

Equation (i) shows the equilibrium reaction of nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia:

(i)

The Haber-Bosch process has provided ammonia-based fertiliser to feed our increasing population for a century. Haber-Bosch supports nearly half of global food production and demand for ammonia is expected to increase as the world’s population grows (2, 3). The use of ammonia as a carbon-free fuel, or as a hydrogen vector, would also increase demand. Fuel ammonia is a nascent concept but the well-established supply line, stability as a liquid under relatively mild conditions and high hydrogen density make it an attractive zero-carbon fuel (4). Indeed, the use of ammonia as a green fuel could cut carbon emissions from shipping by 50% by 2050 (5–7). As a hydrogen vector, ammonia can be converted to hydrogen (and nitrogen) by catalytic cracking. The resulting hydrogen could be used in fuel cells to generate electricity emitting water as a byproduct (8).

Haber-Bosch and the associated processes require considerable hydrocarbon input and ammonia synthesis is the source of an estimated 1% of global CO₂ emissions (9). There is an evident need for the development of ammonia synthesis routes with reduced CO₂ emissions if greenhouse gas targets are to be met.

There are several approaches that can be used to decarbonise ammonia. One route would be to capture and store the CO₂ emissions associated with conventional synthesis gas (syngas) production, known as blue ammonia. Carbon emissions could be eliminated entirely by supplying green hydrogen to the Haber-Bosch process. Green hydrogen can be produced from the electrolysis of water, which is powered by renewable electricity. There are several recent industrial examples that implement this green hydrogen concept and rapid growth is expected as demand for lower carbon ammonia intensifies (10).

Finally, a more economical route to green ammonia would be to eliminate the Haber-Bosch process entirely and use renewable electrical energy (electrochemical) or sunlight (photochemical) to reduce nitrogen from air to ammonia in the presence of water under ambient conditions. Direct synthesis of green ammonia in this manner is non-trivial owing to the chemical inertness of the nitrogen molecule. It is unlikely to be achievable at the necessary scale and cost to compete with conventional Haber-Bosch or green hydrogen Haber-Bosch for decades. However, green ammonia synthesis could be the most intrinsically economical process because it would not require the combination of electrolysers, air separation units and the high-pressure Haber-Bosch plant (11).

The introduction of these technologies can be understood further by considering them as three generations as presented by Professor Douglas MacFarlane at Monash University, Australia, Figure 2. Present day (2020s) ammonia production is Generation 1 with the option of capturing CO₂ to make blue ammonia. Generation 2 is electrolysed hydrogen into the conventional process which is predicted to be widespread by 2030. Generation 3 breaks the paradigm of the Haber-Bosch process with direct synthesis of ammonia under mild conditions with a target for commercialisation by 2050 (12).

Fig. 2.

The generations of ammonia production

This review highlights key trends within green ammonia synthesis and identifies opportunities for decarbonisation at the peaks of Generation 2 and Generation 3 (2030 and 2050 respectively). Green hydrogen from the electrolysis of water coupled with an electrically powered Haber-Bosch process (Generation 2) receives considerable attention in the industry already. Several major ammonia producers have announced plans for green ammonia plants though total capacity of the green ammonia projects remains a fraction of the global ammonia production with challenges of high capital investment and access to sufficient renewable energy. With the drive to zero carbon emissions and increasing prominence of ammonia as a hydrogen vector, direct ammonia production (Generation 3) could become widespread.

2. Electrolysis of Water to Generate Green Hydrogen for Haber-Bosch

2.1 Overview of Green Hydrogen for Ammonia Synthesis

Green ammonia synthesis can be achieved with hydrogen from the electrolysis of water powered by renewable energy. For the process to achieve zero carbon emissions, all aspects of the system must be renewably powered, which includes the compression, heating and separation requirements of the Haber-Bosch process. In addition, desalination of salt water to feed the process must also be considered in areas where access to fresh water is limited.

Equipment and technology vendors offer packages to allow their customers to decarbonise their ammonia plants. For example, contractor and technology provider thyssenkrupp Industrial Solutions (tkIS, Germany) have a strong presence in alkali electrolyser technology and offer a 20 MW electrolyser plant coupled with a 50 tonne day^–1 ammonia plant (smallest tkIS ammonia plant). Revamp options to existing plants are also offered (13). A further step has been demonstrated by Siemens Energy AG, Germany, with a demonstration unit at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory in the UK where ammonia is synthesised using Johnson Matthey catalyst in a renewably powered Haber-Bosch process from wind-powered electrolysed hydrogen and nitrogen derived from air separation. The Siemens ammonia is cracked back to hydrogen and fed into fuel cells to derive on-demand electrical power (14).

The current costs of electrolyser technology are high; they have a significant energy demand and upfront cost so improved efficiency in electrolyser technology is a critical development area. Table I compares different types of electrolyser to generate green hydrogen for ammonia synthesis. Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolysers offer the advantages of high hydrogen purity and pressure to supply the Haber-Bosch process over other technologies as the ammonia synthesis iron catalyst is deactivated by oxygen and ammonia synthesis is favoured at high pressure.

Table I

Comparison of Electrolyser Technologies (15)

Electrolysis method	System efficiency, %	Lifetime, kh	Cost, US$ kW^–1	Typical pressure, bar	Comments
Alkaline (AEL)	51–60	55–120	800–1500	10–30	Mature technology, KOH electrolyte, efficiency decreases at high pressure. Hydrogen purity 99.9%
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) or polymer electrolyte membrane	46–60	60–100	1400–2100	20–50	PEM (Nafion) separates half cells with electrodes mounted on the membrane (membrane electrode assembly). Requires iridium anode and platinum cathode. Hydrogen purity 99.99%
Solid oxide (SO)	76–81	8–20	>2000	1–15	Operates 700–900°C. Highly efficient electrolysis but high temperature material stability is a challenge.

Three factors are critical for improved cost competitiveness of green hydrogen ammonia: lower electrolyser cost, cheaper renewable energy and carbon taxation. Recent modelling from Professor Bañares-Alcántara at Oxford University, UK suggests green hydrogen ammonia will be cost competitive with conventional Haber-Bosch by 2030 with costs from US$310–1736 tonne^–1 depending on location and availability of renewable energy. The assessment is made on the basis of the electrolyser cost falling from US$800 kW^–1 to US$344 kW^–1, renewable energy costs down by 4.5% for wind and 8.9% for solar, and a carbon tax of US$50 tonne_CO2^–1 (16).

Widespread incorporation of electrolysed hydrogen into green ammonia has prompted consideration of whether the ammonia synthesis process should be operated to match the properties of the green hydrogen feed, for example lower pressure ammonia synthesis. Current electrolysis technology generates hydrogen at maximum 30–50 bar which is compressed for the Haber-Bosch process, in some cases up to 300 bar (17). Electrical compressors supplied with renewable electricity are used in the green ammonia flowsheet so the process remains green. However, the high pressure of the Haber-Bosch loop is beneficial for achieving high conversion of nitrogen and hydrogen to ammonia. High pressure is also favourable for separation, where the ammonia product is removed from the synthesis loop. At high pressure, separation can be achieved with cooling water. At lower pressure, ammonia would condense at much lower temperatures requiring expensive refrigeration systems. For green ammonia, operating condition decisions are likely to be similar to those of conventional syngas-fed Haber-Bosch plants. Syngas plants have similar compression requirements to electrolysed hydrogen and the trade-off between pressure, conversion and separation in the loop must be made. There is variety in syngas ammonia plants with some operating at 300 bar and others a lower pressure, for example 80 bar has been successfully achieved with the Johnson Matthey catalyst KATALCO 74-1. The same variation can be expected for green ammonia with reliance on the Haber-Bosch process expected to dominate.

2.2 Alternative Catalysts for the Haber-Bosch Process

Although low pressure ammonia synthesis is unlikely to be suitable for the configuration of conventional Haber-Bosch plants, there may be an opportunity for low pressure systems as demand for non-conventional uses of ammonia rises and if distributed ammonia synthesis develops. There are many examples in academia of research into new catalysts for the Haber-Bosch process. Table II provides some recent examples of research into catalysts for the reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen to make ammonia.

Table II

Selected Examples of Ammonia Synthesis Catalyst Development

Researchers	Institution	Recent work	Reference
Professor Hideo Hosono, Professor Michikazu Hara	Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan	Ruthenium nanoparticles (12 wt%) on CaFH. Strong interaction of ruthenium and H^– enhanced by inclusion of fluoride promotes nitrogen reduction and results in ammonia synthesis at 50°C and atmospheric pressure	(18)
Professor Bingyu Lin, Professor Jianxin Lin, Professor Lilong Jiang	Fuzhou University, China	Enhanced ammonia synthesis of Ru-Ba/a-Al₂O₃ compared to performance over g-Al₂O₃ equivalent	(19)
Professor Edman Tsang and Ian Wilkinson	Oxford University, UK and Siemens Plc	Lithium-promoted ruthenium nanoparticles activate nitrogen to ammonia. Nitrogen stabilised by Li⁺ on ruthenium terrace sites at atmospheric pressure at 460°C	(20)
Professor Franck Natali	Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand	Lanthanide (terbium, gadolinium, praseodymium, dysprosium) metals react with nitrogen to form nitrides which form ammonia when exposed to hydrogen	(21)
Professor Justin Hargreaves	Glasgow University, UK	Fe₃Mo₃C is an active catalyst for ammonia synthesis above 500°C owing to lattice carbon substitution by nitrogen	(22)

2.3 Separation of Ammonia from a Low-Pressure Haber-Bosch Process

Separation of ammonia from unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen is a challenge to overcome if low pressure ammonia synthesis is to become viable for two key reasons; the lower yield of ammonia at low pressure and the need to remove it from the system to favour continued reaction of the nitrogen and hydrogen. A summary of potential separation techniques is provided below.

Absorption – an absorber system could be operated in a ‘lead-lag’ configuration with one absorption bed picking up ammonia with the other simultaneously regenerated. The use of metal salts as absorbents is an active area of research. For example, MgCl₂ will form MgCl₂.NH₃ at 300°C and 0.1 bar (23). Metal salts provide a highly selective system for ammonia absorption with high capacity and are able to operate at relatively high temperatures, but the process is likely to be slower than for adsorption
Adsorption – exploiting the physical interaction of the ammonia molecule with a high surface area structure. There are many examples of ammonia adsorption in literature; activated alumina (24), ionic networks (25) and metal-organic frameworks (26). There are also examples of ammonia adsorption by metals dispersed on high surface area materials (27).

Proof of concept of low-pressure ammonia synthesis integrated with absorption was recently published by Laura Torrente-Murciano at Cambridge University, UK (28). Here, ruthenium (5 wt%) nanoparticles supported on ceria nanorods, promoted with 10% caesium catalysed the ammonia synthesis reaction under relatively mild conditions of 300°C and 20 bar. The absorbent was composed of manganese chloride supported on silica. The silica support is reported to provide thermal stability to the absorbent, permitting operation at 300°C. The catalyst and absorbent were loaded in series in discrete sub-beds within the same vessel with a catalyst bed followed by the absorbent followed by a catalyst bed. Ammonia production of the integrated system was higher than that predicted by equilibrium demonstrating favourable catalyst kinetics and absorbent efficacy over the day long period of the experiment. Once the absorbent was saturated with ammonia, it was regenerated with a flow of nitrogen at 360°C for 2 h.

3. Electrochemical Synthesis of Ammonia

Electrochemical ammonia synthesis harnesses electrical energy, which could be renewably sourced, to directly convert the hydrogen of water and nitrogen in air to ammonia at ambient temperature and pressure. If electrochemical ammonia synthesis could be achieved at high efficiency at potentials close to that of the reaction (i.e. low overpotential), it could compete with conventional Haber-Bosch synthesis in terms of overall cost. However, the current level of development for electrocatalytic ammonia synthesis systems is not far advanced beyond laboratory scale.

The recurring challenge for ammonia synthesis is the inertness of the nitrogen molecule. Electrocatalytic reduction of nitrogen requires significant energy input and a catalyst site with strong binding for nitrogen but a weak interaction with ammonia so it is readily released. An additional challenge for electrochemical synthesis is the competing reaction for hydrogen evolution from water rather than hydrogen incorporation into ammonia. An ideal electrocatalyst maximises conversion to ammonia (measured from current density or turnover frequency), has long life, minimises overpotential (electrochemical potential above the thermodynamic potential that is required to drive the reaction) and has a high Faradaic efficiency (FE) (efficiency with which the electric charge is transferred to the electrochemical reaction) (11). The US Department of Energy (US DOE) has set a target rate for viable electrochemical ammonia production of 10^–4 mol h^–1 cm^–1 and FE of 50% but current systems suffer from insufficient production rates less than 10^–6 mol h^–1 cm^–1 and FE less than 30% indicating how much technology advancement is required. The US DOE estimates that it will take until 2050 for electrochemical ammonia production to compete with Haber-Bosch (30).

If or when electrochemical systems reach the targets, the cost per unit of electrochemical ammonia would be cheaper than that of ammonia from electrolysed hydrogen followed by electrically powered Haber-Bosch. Estimates from Professor Gal Hochman and Professor Alan Goldman from Rutgers University, USA are that if renewable electricity cost is US$50 MWh^–1, the cost for electrochemical ammonia is ~US$500 tonne^–1 compared to ~US$630 tonne^–1 for ammonia from electrolysed green hydrogen feeding into 2000 tonne day^–1 Haber-Bosch. The estimate for ammonia from conventional 2000 tonne day^–1 Haber-Bosch is US$159 tonne^–1 based on cost of US$2.62 per one thousand British thermal units (MBtu) natural gas (11).

Technoeconomic analysis from Jamie R. Gomez, University of New Mexico, USA, confirms the conclusion that direct electrochemical synthesis of ammonia is intrinsically lower cost than the Haber-Bosch process fed with green hydrogen though the calculated costs differ from those of Hochman and Goldman. Gomez assumes that direct electrochemical synthesis of ammonia will require the same infrastructure as a Haber-Bosch plant: renewably powered hydrogen generation, cryogenic nitrogen separation prior to ammonia synthesis coupled with ammonia liquefication and separation post synthesis. Using the US DOE targets for electrochemical ammonia production of 10^–4 mol ^–1 cm^–1 and efficiency of 50% and electrochemical reactor operating at 200°C, ambient pressure, the energy requirement is 17 MWh per tonne of ammonia. The cost of a tonne of electrochemically derived ammonia from this study is US$951 whereas the equivalent process with Haber-Bosch ammonia synthesis was calculated to be US$975 (29).

3.1 Electrochemical Ammonia Synthesis Mechanism

The typical electrochemical ammonia synthesis reaction is described by Equation (ii), the nitrogen reduction reaction (NRR):

(ii)

Reduction of nitrogen occurs at the cathode with six protons and six electrons required to form ammonia (cathode reaction, Equation (iii)). Oxidation of water to hydrogen and oxygen occurs at the anode (anode reaction, Equation (iv)) (11).

(iii)

(iv)

The relatively high number of requisite protons and electrons for nitrogen reduction suggests considerable optimisation is required to improve the reaction kinetics to deliver the charge carriers (30). The mechanism for the reduction of the nitrogen molecule by the six protons and electrons incorporates many intermediates with multiple proton-electron transfer steps. It is likely that electrochemical ammonia synthesis follows an associative mechanism with full cleavage of the nitrogen triple bond after proton-electron transfer, Figure 3. The Haber-Bosch process over iron catalysts is known to follow a dissociative mechanism where the first step is nitrogen triple bond breakage. The difference in the mechanisms means that electrochemical ammonia synthesis via the NRR is intrinsically lower energy than the Haber-Bosch reaction. The reactions that constitute the NRR together with their potentials are summarised in Table III (31). The most negative and therefore most energetically demanding step is the formation of N₂^– (–4.16 V vs. normal hydrogen electrode (NHE)). The formation of N₂H is also negative (–3.2 V vs. NHE). The negative potentials suggest that these steps are likely to be rate limiting in the electrochemical ammonia synthesis process.

Fig. 3.

Possible routes to ammonia via the NRR associative mechanism. The dissociative mechanism that occurs over the iron catalyst of the Haber-Bosch process is provided for comparison

Table III

Summary of the Reactions Constituting the Nitrogen Reduction Reaction and Associated Electrode Potentials

Reaction	E⁰, V^a
H₂O → 0.5O₂ + 2H⁺ + 2e^–	0.81 vs. NHE at pH 7
2H⁺ + 2e^– → H₂	–0.42 vs. NHE at pH 7
N₂ + e^– → N₂^–	–4.16 vs. NHE at pH 0
N₂ + H⁺ + e^– → N₂H	–3.2 vs. NHE at pH 0
N₂ + 2H⁺ + 2e^– → N₂H₂	–1.10 vs. RHE
N₂ + 4H⁺ + 4e^– → N₂H₄	–0.36 vs. NHE at pH 0
N₂ + 5H⁺ + 4e^– → N₂H₄⁺	–0.23 vs. NHE at pH 0
N₂ + 6H⁺ + 6e^– → 2NH₃	0.55 vs. NHE at pH 0
N₂ + 8H⁺ + 8e^– → 2NH₄⁺	0.27 vs. NHE at pH 0

Theoretical studies are often used to explore the potential mechanisms for electrochemical reactions. Schematic representation of the associative and dissociative mechanisms is presented in Figure 3.

The electrochemical system has a significant impact on the efficiency of the process. Factors such as electrode potential, solvent and pH values of electrolytes need to be optimised to achieve the best yields. Electrochemical cell potential is fundamentally dependent on temperature (see box). For the NRR to ammonia from water and nitrogen, the higher the temperature, the lower the potential required to drive the system forward. Electrochemical potential is also critical; different reaction systems tend to have different potentials that will suit ammonia synthesis (33). Furthermore, application of appropriate potential for the NRR can reduce propensity for the hydrogen evolution reaction.

Electrochemical Cell Potential

The Nernst equation (Equation (v)) summarises the relationship between reduction potential of an electrochemical reaction to the standard electrode potential, temperature and activities of the chemical species involved.

(v)

where F = Faraday’s constant (eN_A, e = charge of an electron; N_A = Avogadro constant); v = stoichiometric coefficient of electrons in the electrochemical reaction; Q = reaction quotient, product activity/reactant activity; R = molar gas constant; T = temperature in Kelvin (32).

The electrolyte also plays a role. For example, a low pH solution and the ready availability of protons may favour hydrogen evolution over NRR so higher pH might suit some electrochemical ammonia synthesis processes. However, there is no definitive conclusion on the optimal NRR pH range that universally applies to every system.

Catalyst design is also pivotal for achieving the required rates and yields from electrochemical ammonia synthesis. As mentioned, electrocatalysts should have appropriate active sites to bind nitrogen, easily release ammonia and limit the hydrogen evolution reaction. There is intense academic research into catalysts for electrochemical synthesis of ammonia with many reviews summarising progress. The recent paper from Hui Xu of Giner Inc, USA, and Professor Gang Wu of the University at Buffalo, USA (30) and the review by Professor Liang-Xin Ding and Professor Haihui Wang of the South China University of Technology in Guangzhou, China (33) were highly informative. Review papers from Muhammad Aziz from The University of Tokyo, Japan (34) and Sarb Giddey of CSIRO Energy Technology, Australia (35) provide valuable summaries of electrochemical ammonia production. In many cases, advances in nanomaterials have supported recent developments in electrocatalysis. Table IV highlights a few recent examples with commentary in the sections below.

Table IV

Examples of Electrocatalytic Systems for Generating Ammonia

Catalyst	Electrolyte	Faraday efficiency, %	Ammonia production rate, μg h^–1 mg_cat^–1	*E^θ vs.* RHE at 25°C**	Comment	Reference
Pd/C	0.1 M phosphate buffered saline (PBS)	8.24	4.5	–0.2	Neutral electrolyte (pH 7) improved FE compared to FE of less than 0.1% in NaOH pH 12.9 and H₂SO₄ pH 1.2	(36)
Au-CeO₂/reduced graphene oxide	0.1 M HCl	10.1	8.3	–0.2	Amorphous gold nanoparticles and structural distortion from ceria provides active sites for NRR	(37)
Au₁C₃N₄	0.005 H₂SO₄	11.5	1305	–0.1	Gold single atom carbon nitride catalyst achieved 22 times more ammonia than equivalent system prepared with gold nanoparticles	(38)
Ru@ZrO₂/NC	0.1 M HCl	21	183	–0.2	Ruthenium single-atom supported on nitrogen-doped porous carbon. ZrO₂ supresses hydrogen evolution. Oxygen vacancy sites on ZrO₂ promote catalytic activity of ruthenium for ammonia synthesis	(39)
1T-phase MoS₂ nanodots on g-C₃N₄		20.5	30	–0.3	1T MoS₂ nano dots possesses high surface area with many active edge sites. Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄) electronic effect makes catalyst highly selective for NRR	(40)
Mo₂C	0.1 M HCl	10	95	–0.2	Durable catalyst, 58 h operation. Greater FE than other molybdenum catalysts: MoS₂ 1.17%, MoO₃ 1.9% MoN 1.15% and Mo₂N 4.5%. 25 mA cm^–2 current efficiency	(41)
FeTPPCl	0.1 M Na₂SO₄ PBS (phosphate buffered saline)	17	18	–0.3	Tetraphenylporphyrin iron chloride. FeN₄ site displays strong interaction with nitrogen. Activity retained for 36 h of catalytic testing	(42)
p-Fe₂O₃/CC	0.1 M Na₂SO₄	8	14	–0.4	Porous Fe₂O₃ nanorods grown on carbon cloth. Porosity provides facile access to active sites	(43)
Li⁺/Li	Li⁺ in THF	37	28 ppm	–1 vs. Li⁺/Li	Li⁺ deposited on metal electrode as lithium which reacts with nitrogen in presence of H⁺ to form ammonia. –3 V required to deposit lithium which makes process unstable. Cycling between potentials for Li⁺ in solution and deposited lithium has a stabilising effect, 125 h of testing	(44)
LiCl–KCl	LiCl–KCl–LiH	4.2	2.8 × 10^–8 mol cm^–2 s^–1	1 V vs. Li⁺/Li	High rate for electrochemical ammonia synthesis. Molten salt electrolyte with LiH to provide H^–. Isotope study to prove ¹⁵N₂ incorporated into ¹⁵NH₃	(45)

3.2 Precious Metal Electrocatalysts

Precious metal catalysts (gold, platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium) have promising nitrogen binding energies and excellent conductivity to convey electrons for the reduction reaction. However, hydrogen evolution often out-completes the NRR over precious metal catalysts (46). Platinum catalysts in particular display a strong propensity for hydrogen evolution rather than nitrogen reduction (36). Hydrogenation of the precious metal surface may be a key first step in the reaction mechanism for NRR over gold and palladium to promote the formation of ammonia from nitrogen (47).

3.3 Transition Metal Electrocatalysts

In nature, nitrogenases of nitrogen fixing bacteria catalyse the formation of ammonia from nitrogen with iron and molybdenum identified as the active metals. Iron-only nitrogenase has also been isolated as has a version with molybdenum replaced by vanadium (48). Investigation of electrocatalysts based on iron and molybdenum is a highly active field with promising ammonia rates and FEs. Transition metals have the obvious benefit of lower cost than the precious metal systems.

3.4 Molten Salt Electrolytes

Slow kinetics and hydrogen evolution are problems with many of the aqueous systems designed for ammonia synthesis from air and water at ambient temperature and pressure. Systems operated at higher temperature (+100°C) may have more promise for electrochemical ammonia synthesis at viable rates (49). Molten salt electrolytes have displayed relatively good ammonia synthesis rates with excellent FEs. Of particular interest is a eutectic mixture (a mixture that has a fusion temperature lower than the fusion temperature of any of its components) of LiCl and KCl able to stabilise the N^3– ion which would subsequently form ammonia in the presence of a proton source (H₂, H₂O, HCl) at 400°C (50). Despite promising prospects for this approach, detailed mechanistic studies put the results into doubt; the reaction to form N^3– in the molten salt mixture occurs spontaneously with the species reacting stoichiometrically rather than catalytically. An alternative process with LiCl, KCl and LiH was demonstrated to operate catalytically with LiH providing a hydride H^– to complete the catalytic cycle and undergo oxidation at the anode, see the final entry in Table IV (45).

3.5 Electrochemical Lithium Metal Cycling

Li/Li⁺ cycling is another approach that takes advantage of the spontaneous reaction of lithium with nitrogen to form N^3– which reacts with a proton source to yield ammonia. Together with lithium’s reactivity, its small size is well suited for the diffusion required in electrochemical processes as exploited in the lithium-ion battery industry. Here, a current is applied to reduce Li⁺ to metallic lithium on an electrode. Metallic lithium reacts with nitrogen to form N^3–, which is protonated to form ammonia. Various configurations of the system have been reported.

In one set up, the steps are separate to avoid selectivity problems and the hydrogen evolution reaction. Initially, lithium is formed from LiCl-KCl/LiOH-LiCl molten salt hydrolysis at 450°C in the absence of nitrogen or H⁺ followed by reaction of lithium with nitrogen to make Li₃N at 100°C. Finally, Li₃N reacts with H₂O to yield ammonia. LiOH was recovered from the system to demonstrate circularity. The dominant cost in this process is reduction of Li⁺ to lithium which was achieved at –3 V vs. the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) which is equivalent to 14 kWh kg^–1 ammonia which at US$50 MWh^–1 electricity cost, corresponds to US$700 tonne^–1 ammonia (44).

Lithium metal cycling has its challenges, constant deposition of lithium leads to the formation of a lithium-containing passivation layer or solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer through a reaction of lithium with the organic solvent electrolyte which impedes current flow. To overcome this barrier, experiments have shown that switching electrochemical potential between a lithium deposition regime and Li⁺ in solution leads to a more stable process. The electrochemical potential cycling technique also favours ammonia production because electron availability to reduce nitrogen is enhanced during the Li⁺ solution phase. The system was demonstrated to generate ammonia over 125 h with the highest reported FE of 37% using deposition current –2 mA cm^–2 applied for 1 min followed by up to 8 min of resting potential at 0 V vs. Li/Li⁺. The SEI formed here is also beneficial as it helps control diffusion of Li⁺, protic species, nitrogen and ammonia. Once formed, it also prevents excessive degradation of the electrolyte (ethanol in this particular study) by providing a barrier between the organic species and lithium metal.

3.6 Electrocatalysis Summary

Significant development is required before electrochemical ammonia synthesis will replace the Haber-Bosch process. The substantial thermodynamic challenge to activate nitrogen requires highly active catalysts that do not simultaneously catalyse the reduction of water to hydrogen. It is likely that a combination of careful catalyst design and electrochemical system control will be needed for the process to succeed. Economic assessments indicate that an active and efficient electrochemical ammonia synthesis process would compete financially with electrolysed hydrogen feeding Haber-Bosch with 2050 the estimate for viable technology readiness. A variety of catalysts and electrochemical systems have been discussed in this section with gold nanomaterials and lithium metal cycling promising candidates though further breakthroughs are required to achieve the performance needed for a production plant. Effective separation techniques to isolate ammonia from the electrolyte solution would also be required.

4. Photochemical Ammonia Synthesis

Photochemical reactions are driven by light and photocatalysed ammonia synthesis is regarded as a potential route to green ammonia. The benefit of photocatalysis is that energy for the reaction would be provided directly from sunlight with water and air to provide hydrogen and nitrogen respectively. Unlike the electrochemical process, there would be no need to supply electricity, making photochemical synthesis a potential candidate for decentralised off-grid ammonia production. An evident drawback of photochemical processes is that they only operate when the sun is shining.

The concept would likely feature the catalyst dispersed in a panel to optimise light exposure, potentially suspended in water or as a coated catalyst with water and air bubbled over the surface. Ammonia would need to be separated from the mixture before application as a fertiliser. Photocatalytic activities of ~500 mmol_NH3 g_cat^–1 h^–1 (51) have been reported from the current state of the art systems which is 1000 times less than the electrochemical systems. As Table V indicates, the area of a coated 500 mmol_NH3 g_cat^–1 h^–1 photocatalyst required to match a 2000 tonne per day Haber-Bosch plant would be 1265 km², a considerable area equivalent to the North York Moors National Park in the UK. A 100-fold improvement in catalyst activity would reduce the area required to 13 km² which would be a more feasible area to cover. For comparison, the world’s largest solar park at the time of writing is 57 km² at Bhadla, India (52).

Table V

Estimated Area Required for a Photocatalyst to Produce 2000 tonnes day^–1 Ammonia

	Unit	Current best catalyst activity	Activity increase by 10	Activity increase by 100
Photocatalyst layer	microns	10	10	10
Typical coated catalyst loading	mg m^–2	15500	15500	15500
Typical coated catalyst loading	g m^–2	15.5	15.5	15.5
Catalyst activity	mmol g^–1 h^–1	500	5000	50,000
Ammonia from 1 m² in 1 h	mmol	7750	77500	775000
	mg	131750	1317500	13175000
	g	0.13175	1.3175	13.175
Ammonia in 12 h daylight	g	1.581	15.81	158.1
Ammonia in 12 h daylight	tonnes	1.581E-06	1.58E-05	0.000158
Area required for 2000 tonnes day^–1 ammonia plant	m²	1.265E+09	1.27E+08	12650221
Area required for 2000 tonnes day^–1 ammonia plant	km²	1265	127	13

As mentioned, photocatalysis might suit demands of off-grid distributed ammonia production. In this case ammonia demand would be significantly less than a 2000-tonne-per day plant. Agricultural fertiliser demands vary according to crop, soil type and geography but if nitrogen requirement of 200 kg nitrogen hectare^–1 year^–1 (53) is used as a conservative average and 400 hectares the size of a large arable farm (54), the quantity of ammonia required is ~100 tonnes year^–1. With a 500 mmol_NH3 g_cat^–1 h^–1 coated photocatalyst, the area required is 0.2 km² or 20 hectares, 5% of the size of the farm.

A complicating factor is that molecular ammonia is rarely applied as a fertiliser. Its high volatility and solubility mean it would rapidly evaporate or leach away. Ammonia is converted to a range of compounds such as urea or ammonium salts (for example, (NH₄)₂SO₄ or NH₄NO₃) to be applied as a fertiliser. Distributed ammonia production would need additional technology for conversion of ammonia to fertiliser compounds. Furthermore, different fertiliser compounds have varying CO₂ emissions associated with their production and use. The CO₂ emissions from urea are 8% higher than from ammonium nitrate (55). However, ammonium nitrate can be highly explosive if not manufactured, stored and handled properly according to recognised standards and decentralised production poses significant safety and security risks. Together with advances in ammonia production, decentralisation also requires developments in fertiliser compounds, their application and stability and ease of production from ammonia.

4.1 Mechanism of Photocatalytic Ammonia Synthesis

Highly active photocatalysts are required to enable photochemical ammonia synthesis to become a viable process. Photocatalysts often rely on semi-conductor materials to absorb solar energy. The energy excites photo-induced electrons into the semi-conductor conduction band and leaves holes in the valence band. The electrons in the conduction band are available for reducing nitrogen to ammonia through migration to the catalyst active site where nitrogen is bound. The holes provide charge balance and complete the catalytic cycle with the oxidation of H₂O to O₂ (56). The process is summarised in Figure 4. A complication with photocatalytic ammonia synthesis is that the rate of hole quenching with water to complete the catalytic cycle is slow so hole scavengers such as methanol or formaldehyde can be used instead to achieve a faster rate for the photochemical reaction.

Fig. 4.

Photocatalytic generation of ammonia and oxygen following light activation of a semiconductor and generation of electrons and holes

As with electrocatalysed ammonia synthesis, it is likely that the reaction follows an associative mechanism with hydrogenation of adsorbed nitrogen prior to cleavage of the nitrogen-nitrogen bond. Exact mechanisms are likely to differ depending on the configuration of the various catalytic processes. Hydrogen evolution remains a strong competing reaction. A significant thermodynamic barrier to overcome is the reduction potential of N₂ + e^– → N₂^– –4.2 eV (Table III). The conduction band gap of many semiconductors should be greater than this energy requirement so semiconductor choice is key for photocatalysis design (57).

Quantum efficiency (QE) is another critical factor for photochemical processes and describes the proportion of photons incident on a semiconductor that go on to excite electrons and reduce nitrogen in the case of photochemical ammonia synthesis. Owing to the challenge of variation in equipment and catalytic setups, incident light intensity rather than absorbed light intensity is used to calculate apparent QE (58).

4.2 Photochemical Ammonia Synthesis Catalysts

A comparison of a variety of photocatalysts for ammonia generation is provided in Table VI with a more detailed discussion of the photocatalysts in the next section. Several thorough reviews of photochemical ammonia synthesis catalysts have recently been published including one from Professor Junwang Tang from University College London, UK (53), one from Professor Tierui Zhang from the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China (62) and another from Professor Zhong Jin from Nanjing University, China (54).

Table VI

Examples of Photocatalytic Systems for the Generation of Ammonia

Catalyst	Quantum efficiency, %	Ammonia production rate, μmol h^–1 g_cat^–1	Scavenger	Comment	Reference
BiOBr nanosheet with oxygen vacancies	0.23 at 420 nm	104	None	Oxygen vacancies of BiOBr nanosheets activate adsorbed nitrogen. Enhanced electron density at oxygen vacancy suppresses electron/hole recombination and promotes electron transfer to nitrogen for reduction to ammonia. Experiment preceded by theoretical study to confirm feasibility. Oxygen generation was detected proving H₂O able to act as electron donor	(59)
FePt@C₃N₄	0.15 at 450–500 nm	4	None	Platinum doping of FeC₃N₄ nanoclusters enhances nanocluster morphology by preventing agglomeration of magnetic particles and improves electron/hole charge separation to enhance nitrogen reduction	(60)
SV-1T-MoS₂-CdS nanorod	4.4 at 420–780 nm	457	Methanol	Oxygen doped 1T-MoS₂ nanosheets with sulfur vacancies (SV) deployed as cocatalysts over CdS nanorods. SVs and metallic conduction properties of 1T-MoS₂ promotes electron/hole separation. The SV-1T-MoS₂ also provides active sites for nitrogen binding	(61)
CdS-Fe-sMoS₂	3.5 at 436 nm	459	None	CdS 10 nm quantum dots as cocatalyst for single-atom iron on single layer MoS₂. Electron/holes generated by CdS and efficiently separated at Fe-S₂-Mo interface	(51)

4.2.1 Defect Incorporation

Vacancies in a photocatalyst can improve nitrogen adsorption and charge separation of photoexcited electrons and associated holes. For example, oxygen vacancies in BiOBr nanosheets promote the electron transfer to adsorbed nitrogen and enhance ammonia generation compared to the BiOBr material without vacancies. The BiOBr nanosheet is composed of [Bi₂O₂]^2– units interleaved with bromine atoms with a band gap of 2.8 eV which corresponds to visible light absorption. The oxygen vacancies were formed through the reaction of ethylene glycol with surface oxygen in BiOBr. An ammonia production rate of 104 μmol h^–1 g_cat^–1 was measured (63).

4.2.2 Metal Doping

A photocatalyst composed of iron-platinum loaded graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄) displays ammonia production rate of 4 μmol h^–1 g_cat^–1. Graphitic carbon nitride is derived from urea and has semiconductor properties. The prepared catalyst contained 0.3 wt% platinum and 3 wt% iron on g-C₃N₄ and is designated FePt@C₃N₄. The addition of platinum prevented agglomeration of the nanoclusters compared to the equivalent Fe@C₃N₄ species. Platinum doping also causes an uplift in the semiconductor energy band which improves electron/hole separation favouring electron conduction to bound nitrogen and its subsequent reduction. Photocatalytic activity was tested in the presence of hydrogen and nitrogen with formation of N₂H₄ considered indicative of potential to make ammonia (60).

4.2.3 Cocatalyst Incorporation

Cocatalysts are used in photocatalytic processes to enhance the photostability of catalysts. For example, cadmium sulfide has received considerable attention as a photocatalyst. It has favourable band positions and is relatively simple to prepare but it is readily oxidised and corrodes when exposed to light. Photocatalytic efficiency of cadmium sulfide is also low owing to rapid electron/hole recombination. Combining cadmium sulfide with a cocatalyst can enhance its properties. In one example cadmium sulfide nanorods prepared by precipitation were combined with 30% oxygen-doped 1T-MoS nanosheets with sulfur vacancies (SV-1T-MoS₂) also prepared by a hydrothermal reaction and precipitation (61).

Another cocatalyst example is provided by CdS-Fe-sMoS₂ from the research group of Professor Edman Tsang at Oxford University, UK and patented by Oxford University Innovation. The photocatalyst displays relatively good activity of 459 μmol h^–1 g_cat^–1 and high quantum yield of 3.5%. It is composed of cadmium sulfide quantum dots incorporated onto single-atom iron on single layer molybdenum sulfide. The combination of the component units raises the system’s valence band to a potential that exceeds nitrogen reduction (–4.2 vs. NHE at pH 0) so electrons are of appropriate energy to reduce nitrogen. The single layer molybdenum sulfide catalyst is made from bulk molybdenum sulfide by lithium intercalation and sonication in water. Single atom iron doping of the s-MoS₂ is achieved hydrothermally before combining with 10 nm particles of cadmium sulfide. The cadmium sulfide particles provide additional catalytic activity, likely though the contribution of additional electron-hole pairs from visible light illumination. Efficient separation of the electron and holes is achieved by the [Fe-S₂-Mo] motifs in Fe-sMoS₂ at the materials’ interface.

4.3 Photocatalysis Summary

A photocatalytic route to ammonia is likely to be even further off than electrocatalytic ammonia synthesis. Photocatalytic activity is roughly 1000 times less than the electrocatalysts. Breakthroughs in catalyst development are required to achieve adequate ammonia synthesis rates. More active photocatalysts would enable installations of reasonable and practical size to capture the required solar energy to make economically competitive quantities of ammonia. The opportunity for photochemical ammonia synthesis in isolated locations to make fertiliser is questionable considering ammonia’s toxicity and high solubility, requiring its conversion to fertiliser compounds before application on farmers’ fields. Truly decentralised ammonia production would need to be coupled with fertiliser compound synthesis which may delay realisation of the concept.

Despite the challenges, a photocatalytic system would be ‘super green’, powered by sunlight and synthesising ammonia from air and water without direct power requirements. In locations benefitting from high sunlight levels, photocatalytic ammonia synthesis could provide a production boost to an existing ammonia facility. As for electrocatalysis, successful photocatalytic systems are based on nano-systems with strong propensity to bind and activate nitrogen and optimised to conduct photo-induced electrons to the catalyst active site. A system based on CdS-Fe-sMoS₂ was recently patented by Oxford Innovations UK and has among the highest ammonia production rates reported.

5. Conclusions

Green routes to ammonia are receiving considerable attention from academia, governments and industry to mitigate the high carbon footprint of the conventional Haber-Bosch process which is estimated to contribute 1% of global CO₂ emissions. Many key players of the ammonia industry have already announced plans to incorporate green hydrogen from electrolysis into their existing plants. It is likely that more will follow.

The development of lower pressure ammonia synthesis systems (less than 20 bar) is also an area receiving attention though the current industrial trend is towards higher pressure systems owing to the challenges of separating ammonia at low pressure and lower conversion. However, there may be instances where smaller, lower pressure plants make sense. These plants would require catalyst development to operate at the lower pressure and novel separation techniques to isolate the product ammonia.

Although direct ammonia synthesis via electro- or photocatalysis is a distant prospect, the gains to be made are significant considering that the direct route from water and air or (hydrogen and nitrogen) is inherently lower cost than electrolysis and Haber-Bosch. Efforts on direct ammonia synthesis would be a long-term undertaking as the technology is not anticipated to be economically viable for another 30 years. However, if ammonia demand for fertilisers and fuel increases as expected, production at lower cost with zero carbon emissions presents an attractive opportunity. Furthermore, the pursuit of intrinsically lower cost routes to ammonia synthesis such as electrochemical or photochemical will drive innovation in these fields which may accelerate breakthroughs. If ammonia is to be produced from water and air, separation techniques to isolate ammonia will be critical here too.

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By Arc Consulting|2022-05-10T14:10:29+00:00May 10th, 2022|Weld Engineering Services|Comments Off

Erratum: Data-Driven Modelling of a Pelleting Process and Prediction of Pellet Physical Properties

Erratum: Data-Driven Modelling of a Pelleting Process and Prediction of Pellet Physical Properties | Johnson Matthey Technology Review

Home > Journal Archive > Erratum: Data-Driven Modelling of a Pelleting Process and Prediction of Pellet Physical Properties

Johnson Matthey Technol. Rev., 2022, 66, (3), 245

doi:10.1595/205651322×16499427403168

Erratum: Data-Driven Modelling of a Pelleting Process and Prediction of Pellet Physical Properties

Control of quality leads to improved economics and sustainability

NON-PEER REVIEWED FEATURE Received 31st March 2022; Online 10th May 2022

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It has come to our attention that there was an error in the attribution of the brand name in a recently published article (1) as follows.

2.1.1 Compaction Simulator

The STYL’One Evolution brand is owned by Medelpharm SAS, France, as of the date of publication of the article.

Reference

Funded Ingenious projects 2022

The Play House, Birmingham

Daughters of Invention: Makerspace is an exciting partnership between The Play House, and the University of Birmingham’s School of Engineering. The project will develop student engineers’ confidence and public engagement skills whilst increasing primary school children’s engagement in and understanding of engineering. The project will deliver immersive drama engineering workshops in a fictional makerspace, where children and parents will solve engineering challenges and hear from a diverse group of engineers. At the end of the project, the children and their parents will undertake a treasure hunt with engineers through the campus engineering laboratories. The children, parents, and teachers will co-produce the project, embedding the core message that engineering is for everyone in their community.

Children’s Radio UK, across the UK

Engineering Academy is a multi-media project that will introduce and inspire children to explore and discover the opportunities that engineering offers everyone, irrespective of their backgrounds. Through a series of 26 weekly radio programmes, broadcast on national radio station Fun Kids and available as podcasts, children will hear engineers talk about what they do and what inspired them to become engineers. These audio programmes will help children learn informally whenever and however they want. Inspiring and fun resources will be available for children to download and complete to progress through the Academy, and host ‘Academy Live’ events across the UK. ‘Engineering Academy’ will help young engineers to learn and practise skills to become better communicators and public engagers.

National Aquaculture Centre, across the UK

In Engineering a Sustainable Food Solution, the National Aquaculture Centre (NAC), will develop a sustainable food production system, in partnership with the University of Leeds, Blackrow Ltd, Technical Ltd, and Aceleronenergy Ltd.

The AquaTrainer unit will then be showcased at the Humberston Eco Conservation Centre to provide educational and visitor workshops, with educational partnerships with the University of Leeds and other stakeholder organisations to engage with a broader regional cohort of young people.

Additional outcomes of the project include a functioning low carbon food production system for the Centre, CPD for engineers, and technical training programmes for young people on renewable energy systems and low carbon food production.

Cambridge Science Centre, East of England

Engineering our Tomorrows aims to boost children’s curiosity about the diverse nature and impact of engineering in resolving complex challenges.

The project will create exciting engineering-based outreach and resources for Key Stage 2 and Key Stage 3 students in schools and communities throughout the East of England. The students can enjoy a new interactive show, hands-on activities, and classroom kit boxes to continue engagement in the future. The resources will draw on the experience and knowledge of Future Infrastructure and Built Environment engineers and Cambridge Science Centre to inspire children to discover future infrastructure solutions.

University of Dundee, Dundee

Engineering the curriculum: inspiring the next generation of engineers aims to help change perceptions of engineering. Engineering is key to ensuring economic growth and improving quality of life. Despite the projected rise in demand for engineering talent, there is a shortage of people wanting to undertake engineering courses. Reasons for this include low confidence of schoolteachers in teaching engineering-related topics, misconceptions around the role and relevance of engineers to society and the absence of an enabling environment for pupils.

The University of Dundee and the Association for Black and Minority Ethnic Engineers Scotland will address these issues by building diverse teams consisting of engineering professionals, students, and schoolteachers in Dundee. Teams will undertake training in public engagement before developing a range of practical engineering activities, framed around curriculum requirements. The activities developed will form part of a STEM library which local schools will be able to borrow to showcase engineering. Teams will engage with children during the delivery of activities in schools and participate in a public celebration day, promoting engineering role models in the community.

Surefoot CIC, Scotland

Exploring heat loss and energy efficiency in community buildings will see volunteer engineers work with churches and other community groups to help them understand the basic principles behind thermal modelling and apply them to their own spaces. Under the engineers’ guidance, each group will complete four two-hour exercises in their buildings over a year. They will explore how heating systems work, heat loss, thermal comfort, and possible future changes to their buildings in the drive to Net Zero, including the “people” side of enabling change. The groups will then plan and hold a community consultation showcasing their learning. This project will change the futures of some important buildings and create a culture in which communities remember to seek out and value the engineers who live among them.

ech2o, across the UK

Flamingo Engineering will engage a group of engineers, engineering students, and local young adults who will receive training and then co-deliver a workshop with ech2o. Through these workshops, the pupils will gain an understanding about what engineers do. With an entertaining and educational story, the workshop will reach teachers, teaching assistants, and through the pupils, families in the home, spreading the possibility and accessibility of an engineering career to a broad audience. The pupils will engage in a hands-on engineering activity and use the ‘Think it, Build it, Test it!’ model to encourage them to view engineering as an interesting path, open to all. ech2o’s programme will continue through an engineering club to run over six weeks after the initial workshop is completed. All activities from both the workshop and engineering club will be freely downloadable, offering a lasting legacy of the project.

University of Sheffield, Yorkshire & the Humber

Flying Futures is designed to engage schools and the public ahead of the launch of a Green Technology Hub in South Yorkshire. This project looks at excellence in engineering through the lens of the Vulcan, a delta-winged heritage aircraft and explores the future of an environmentally sustainable aerospace industry.

The project will engage with local communities across South Yorkshire, North Lincolnshire and the Humber. Flying Futures will be an interactive workshop roadshow that will support relationship-building between local schools, the public, the University of Sheffield, STEM education providers, local aerospace research and development organisations and engineers.

University of Salford, Salford

HandBuild/HandAssess will harness public curiosity surrounding upper-limb prosthetics to develop a public engagement toolkit. A training programme will be developed to equip PhD students and experienced researchers with the skills to communicate their research to young audiences. The engineers involved will gain the confidence to engage with the public before developing materials based on their research. The project will deliver a two-day campus visit where pupils take part in the HandBuild and Hand Assess packages, explore the routes into a career in medical engineering, and recognise how engineers work closely alongside healthcare professionals and patients to ensure positive outcomes.

W5 Science & Discovery Centre, Belfast

Maritime Engineering of the Future will combine engineers from Artemis Technologies and the Belfast Maritime Consortium with W5’s learning and engagement team to work with young people from schools and youth groups in a series of workshops and hands-on building sessions. The young maritime recruits will discover the importance of ship-building within the history of Belfast and Northern Ireland, the importance of global shipping today and its environmental impact. The programme will develop the public engagement skills of participating engineers, showcase engineering within the maritime sector, and provide an exciting and fun series of activities for all participants. This will culminate in the inaugural ‘Ingenious Cardboard Regatta’, with engineering activities and opportunities for families and the public to engage with maritime experts.

Sustrans, London

Minecraft Street Builders aims to encourage highway engineers to engage with the diverse communities they design for and to raise awareness among young people about highway engineering. Sustrans and BlockBuilders will upskill 15-20 highway engineers from three London boroughs in designing collaboratively for diversity and using Minecraft for engagement.

The engineers will then deliver interactive workshops for 180 students from three secondary schools, who will consider the needs of different users and design their dream local streets using Minecraft. The students will have the opportunity to showcase their ideas to the school community and feed into live projects being delivered by the borough engineers.

University of Manchester, Manchester

The Minesweeper Manchester competition will see teams of school students aged between 14-16 years old from across the North West region compete. The students will be tasked with building their own minesweeper robot featuring an integrated metal detector. Each team will be paired with two engineering undergraduates from the University of Manchester who will act as mentors to the students.

The competition will involve the teams designing and developing their robots over a few weeks with guidance and mentoring, before exhibiting their robots to complete challenges in front of an expert panel.

Motivez, London

Prospering Peckham places young people at the heart of the long-term strategy to reach Southwark’s climate change commitments by cutting emissions and developing green jobs.

It will run an 8-week programme and competition that connects engineers with 60 ambitious students aged 13-15 at Harris Academy Peckham, situated on London’s 9th-most polluted road, to develop engineering-based solutions to mitigate local pollution issues.

The project involves a series of fun activities, fireside chats, workshops, and mentoring led by inspirational young professionals. The students will increase their awareness of how engineers can solve these climate change and pollution issues and will build a campaign to advocate for how their green solutions can benefit their communities.

University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth

Puppets as Enzyme Engineers of the Imagination will train engineers to use puppetry to engage young people in Portsmouth and Bognor Regis in bioengineering projects and encourage them to pursue engineering careers. The Centre for Enzyme Innovation focuses on developing biotechnological solutions as a low carbon solution for recycling plastic waste in a circular economy. The aim is to inspire young people by promoting the role of engineering, interpreted and discussed through co-design puppetry workshops between engineers from the University of Portsmouth and the Portsmouth Young Carers Centre with The Makers Guild, Making Theatre and local secondary schools students. A showcase event at Portsmouth Guildhall and online performances will be used to engage the regional, national and international public with the event.

EDT Engineering Development Trust, across the UK

SEND STEM will deliver a careers-themed STEM (science, technology, engineering, and maths) suite of activities for young people with Special Educational Needs and Disabilities (SEND). The project’s long-term goal is to provide SEND-specialised STEM careers guidance, to ensure that SEND pupils have access to the tailored support they need to pursue equal opportunities in STEM.

Engineers will work with teams of students on three-day STEM activities and share their engineering journeys. The project will also signpost next steps such as apprenticeships open to young people in their local area and engaging potential employers.

University of Central Lancashire, Blackpool

Smart Seas is a one-year project with primary school children from 12 schools across Blackpool exploring the impacts of climate change and pollution in oceans. Pupils will design and build a physical device to collect data on ocean health from coastal waters with the help of engineers from the University of Central Lancashire. In a series of 12 interactive after-school sessions, the pupils will engage with guest engineers and be invited to the University to explore a cross-section of engineering including mathematics, materials, coding, robotics, and motor engineering.

Spacefund, Kent

Space Engineers is an exciting new project led by Spacefund, bringing a team of 30 volunteer Engineers and 400 Girlguides on a STEM-themed space mission to the Moon. The project will provide the girls with an opportunity to use their problem-solving and engineering skills within a Lunar Base – a series of domes and tunnels that simulate an immersive ‘escape room’ style experience. The mentor engineers will help develop the engineering challenges, support the girls through their Girlguiding Space Engineers badge, and participate with them to succeed in their space mission. Space Engineers will light the fire of inspiration for the next generation of women in engineering.

Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester

Sports Shoes – A Feat of Engineering will promote an inclusive economy by engaging primary school children from underrepresented groups in Manchester through sport. The project will introduce children aged 9-10 to the design of sports shoes, through discussions, hands-on activities, and testing. Leveraging the success of EURO 2020 and Tokyo 2020, and ahead of the Commonwealth Games and FIFA World Cup in 2022, this project will showcase sports engineering.

Working as an engineering team in their schools, children will design a sports shoe midsole under the guidance of engineering ambassadors, learning about the latest trends in environmental design and bringing their designs to life with 3D printing. Engineers new to public engagement will become champions of engineering and act as role models for children and teachers, demonstrating the exciting ways that engineering underpins society, from the latest breakthrough technology to the shoes on their feet.

Diocese of London, London

St Paul’s Cathedral: Building the Dastardly Triple Dome will run a one-day workshop for trainee engineers and secondary school pupils from underrepresented backgrounds. The project will explore the construction of the triple dome of St Paul’s Cathedral, as one of Sir Christopher Wren’s most complex and awe-inspiring designs.

Students will build and decorate a miniature dome in spring 2023 as part of the Wren 300 festival in the church of Holy Sepulchre, The National Musicians’ Church Holborn, the largest Parish Church in inner London. The project will be led by Professor Chris Wise RDI FREng, Senior Director of Expedition Engineering, together with engineers, engineering trainees, and alumni from The Stephen Lawrence Trust (now Blueprint for All) and Brunel University with Catherine Ramsden, architect and Founder Director of the Really Useful Company.

Liberty Arts Yorkshire, Yorkshire

STEM Theatre in a Box aims to provide resources and workshops for young children in EYFS and KS1. Using storytelling, theatre, and practical science, the project aims to give children aged 5-7 years the opportunity and resources to build Science Capital and an understanding of how science and engineering are relevant to them using through real-life issues.

The project will focus on resources, workshops, and performances for schools and communities in underserved areas. The workshops will tell the stories of engineers and their work through interwoven dance, movement, puppetry, and science and engineering experiments and activities. The project will train engineers from sustainability-related disciplines to present their work and communicate with young children and families.

STEMAZING Kids CIC, across the UK

The STEMAZING Inspiration Academy is a project that supports and empowers women in STEM to be more confident visible role models and inspire our future engineers.

Research shows that there are huge benefits in giving both young boys and young girls female STEM role models which will help build a more diverse and inclusive future STEM workforce.

This programme is designed for women in engineering and builds their confidence on camera, culminating in them delivering a series of six hands-on and interactive STEMAZINGKids sessions that champion diversity and inclusion in STEM to 7-9 year olds via Zoom in the classroom. This remote delivery will allow more schools in underserved areas from across the UK to take part and engage with women in STEM.

University of Greenwich, London

The End of the World Immersive Adventure is a narrative-based Escape Room for young people and families to be designed and delivered by a group of engineers and engineering students. Using co-design principles and working with stakeholders, they will develop and build physical engineering, software engineering, and maths puzzles that must be negotiated to successfully escape the room and “save the world” from climate change disasters.

Based in Lewisham, the launch will coincide with London Borough of Culture 2022 and its Climate Emergency focus. The project will be developed into a sustainable social enterprise, providing an engineering engagement legacy designed to reach underserved communities.

University of the West of England (UWE Bristol), West of England

We Make Our Future is an interactive and educational planetarium show for the next generation of Digital Engineers. Explorer Dome and the DETI Inspire team at UWE Bristol have created a new experience to celebrate the ingenuity of human engineering. Full-dome digital projections will allow visitors to view engineering marvels from history and explore the pros and cons of modern life. The planetarium show was previewed to the public at the COP26 Planetarium in November 2021. This project will enhance the legacy of the show by reaching diverse young people from across the West of England with a schools’ tour. Experienced presenters from Explorer Dome will train regional engineers in presentation skills to inspire young people. Films of sustainability engineers at their workplaces will showcase how the engineering design process can address the Climate and Ecological Emergency. The presenter-led planetarium experience will be delivered inside the immersive Explorer Dome in schools or remotely via Zoom.

Notes for Editors

Ingenious is an awards scheme, run by the Royal Academy of Engineering, for projects that engage the public with engineers and engineering. The scheme is supported by the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy.

The Ingenious programme aims to:

inspire creative public engagement with engineering projects
motivate engineers to share their stories, passion and expertise with wider audiences and develop their communication and engagement skills
raise awareness of the diversity, nature and impact of engineering among people of all ages and backgrounds
provide opportunities for engineers to engage with members of the public from groups currently underrepresented in engineering.

Ingenious has funded over 250 projects to date, providing opportunities for close to 7,000 engineers to take part in public engagement activities, to gain skills in communication and to help bring engineering to the very centre of society. Ingenious projects have reached over 3.2 million members of the public.

The Royal Academy of Engineering is harnessing the power of engineering to build a sustainable society and an inclusive economy that works for everyone.

Together we’re working to tackle the greatest challenges of our age.

For media enquiries please contact: Chris Urquhart at the Royal Academy of Engineering Tel. +44 207 766 0725; email: Chris.Urquhart@raeng.org.uk

By Arc Consulting|2022-05-08T23:01:00+00:00May 8th, 2022|Engineering News|Comments Off

New Engineering X case studies spotlight good and bad safety practice for complex systems

Notes for Editors

Connecting STEM Teachers network celebrates the 90th anniversary of Amelia Earhart landing in Derry

Academy supports valuable new resources for systems approaches to policy development in government

Notes for Editors

Open burning of waste in Africa: Challenges and opportunities

Notes for Editors

For more information please contact:

Review of Recent Progress in Green Ammonia Synthesis

1. Introduction

Fig. 1.

(i)

Fig. 2.

2. Electrolysis of Water to Generate Green Hydrogen for Haber-Bosch

2.1 Overview of Green Hydrogen for Ammonia Synthesis

Table I

2.2 Alternative Catalysts for the Haber-Bosch Process

Table II

2.3 Separation of Ammonia from a Low-Pressure Haber-Bosch Process

3. Electrochemical Synthesis of Ammonia

3.1 Electrochemical Ammonia Synthesis Mechanism

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

Fig. 3.

Table III

Electrochemical Cell Potential

(v)

Table IV

3.2 Precious Metal Electrocatalysts

3.3 Transition Metal Electrocatalysts

3.4 Molten Salt Electrolytes

3.5 Electrochemical Lithium Metal Cycling

3.6 Electrocatalysis Summary

4. Photochemical Ammonia Synthesis

Table V

4.1 Mechanism of Photocatalytic Ammonia Synthesis

Fig. 4.

4.2 Photochemical Ammonia Synthesis Catalysts

Table VI

4.2.1 Defect Incorporation

4.2.2 Metal Doping

4.2.3 Cocatalyst Incorporation

4.3 Photocatalysis Summary

5. Conclusions

Erratum: Data-Driven Modelling of a Pelleting Process and Prediction of Pellet Physical Properties

Erratum: Data-Driven Modelling of a Pelleting Process and Prediction of Pellet Physical Properties

Control of quality leads to improved economics and sustainability

2.1.1 Compaction Simulator

Reference

From sports shoes and ocean health to St Paul’s Cathedral – new Ingenious engagement projects

Funded Ingenious projects 2022

Notes for Editors